NOTE: I have moved my blog (including an update of this post): See http://doctrina.org/How-RSA-Works-With-Examples.html
In this post, I am going to explain exactly how RSA public key encryption works. One of the three seminal events in 20th century cryptography, RSA opens the world to host of various cryptographic protocols (like digital signatures, cryptographic voting etc). All discussions on this topic (including this one) are very mathematical, but the difference here is that I am going to go out of my way to explain each concept with a concrete examples. The reader who only has a beginner level of mathematical knowledge should be able to understand exactly how RSA works after reading this post along with the examples.
Background Mathematics
The Set Of Integers Modulo P
The set:
\begin{equation}\label{bg:intmod} \mathbb{Z}_p = \{0,1,2,...,p-1\}\end{equation}
Is called the set of integers modulo p (or mod p for short). It is a set that contains Integers from $0$ up until $p-1$.
Example: $\mathbb{Z}_{10} =\{0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9\}$
Example: $\mathbb{Z}_{10} =\{0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9\}$
Integer Remainder After Dividing
When we first learned about numbers at school, we had no notion of real numbers, only integers. Therefore we were told that 5 divided by 2 was equal to 2 remainder 1, and not $2\frac{1}{2}$. It turns out that this type of math is absolutely vital to RSA, and is one of the reasons that secure RSA. A very formal way of stating a remainder after dividing by another number is an equivalence relationship:
\begin{equation}
\label{bg:mod} \forall x,y,z,k \in \mathbb{Z}, x \equiv y \bmod z
\Longrightarrow x = k\cdot z + y\end{equation}
Equation
$\ref{bg:mod}$ states that if $x$ is equivalent to the remainder (in
this case $y$) after dividing by an integer (in this case $z$), then $x$
can be written like so: $x = k\cdot z + y$ where $k$ is an integer.
Example:
If $y=4$ and $z=10$, then the following values of $x$ will satisfy the
above equation: $x=4, x=14, x=24,...$. In fact, there are an infinite
amount of values that $x$ can take on to satisfy the above equation
(that is why I used the equivalence relationship $\equiv$ instead of
equals). Therefore, $x$ can be written like so: $x = k\cdot 10 + 4$,
where $k$ can be any of the infinite amount of integers.
There are two important things to note:
- The remainder $y$ stays constant, whatever value $x$ takes on to satisfy quation $\ref{bg:mod}$.
- Due to the above fact, $y \in \mathbb{Z}_z$ ($y$ is in the set of integers modulo $z$)
Multiplicative Inverse And The Greatest Common Divisor
A multiplicative inverse for $x$ is written as $x^{-1}$ and is defined as so:
\begin{equation}x\cdot x^{-1} = 1\end{equation}
The
greatest common divisor (gcd) between two numbers is the largest
integer that will divide both numbers. For example, $gcd(4,10) = 2$.
The
interesting thing is that if two numbers have a gcd of 1, then the
smaller of the two numbers has a multiplicative inverse in the modulo of
the larger number. It is expressed in the following equation:
\begin{equation}\label{bg:gcd}x \in \mathbb{Z}_p, x^{-1} \in \mathbb{Z}_p \Longleftrightarrow \gcd(x,p) = 1\end{equation}
The above just says that if an inverse only exists if the greatest common divisor is 1. An example should set things straight...
Example: Lets work in the set $\mathbb{Z}_9$, then $4 \in \mathbb{Z}_9$ and $gcd(4,9)=1$. Therefore $4$ has a multiplicative inverse (written $4^{-1}$) in $\bmod 9$, which is $7$. And indeed, $4\cdot 7 = 28 = 1 \bmod 9$. But not all numbers have inverses. For instance, $3 \in \mathbb{Z}_9$ but $3^{-1}$ does not exist! This is because $gcd(3,9) = 3 \neq 1$.
\begin{equation}\label{bg:gcd}x \in \mathbb{Z}_p, x^{-1} \in \mathbb{Z}_p \Longleftrightarrow \gcd(x,p) = 1\end{equation}
The above just says that if an inverse only exists if the greatest common divisor is 1. An example should set things straight...
Example: Lets work in the set $\mathbb{Z}_9$, then $4 \in \mathbb{Z}_9$ and $gcd(4,9)=1$. Therefore $4$ has a multiplicative inverse (written $4^{-1}$) in $\bmod 9$, which is $7$. And indeed, $4\cdot 7 = 28 = 1 \bmod 9$. But not all numbers have inverses. For instance, $3 \in \mathbb{Z}_9$ but $3^{-1}$ does not exist! This is because $gcd(3,9) = 3 \neq 1$.
Euler's Totient
Euler's Totient
is the number of elements that have an inverse in a set of modulo
integers. The totient is denoted using the Greek symbol phi $\phi$.
From $\ref{bg:gcd}$ above, we can see that the totient is just a count
of number of elements that have their $\gcd$ with the modulus equal to
1. Now for any prime number $p$, every number from $1$ up to $p-1$ has a
$\gcd$ of 1 with $p$. This brings us to an important equation regarding
the totient and prime numbers:
\begin{equation}\label{bg:totient} p \in \mathbb{P}, \phi(p) = p-1 \end{equation}
Example: $\phi(7) = \left|\{1,2,3,4,5,6\}\right| = 6$
(Note: In set theory, anything between |{...}| just means the amount of elements in {...} - called cardinality for those who are interested)
(Note: In set theory, anything between |{...}| just means the amount of elements in {...} - called cardinality for those who are interested)
RSA
With the above background, we have enough tools to describe RSA and show how it works. RSA is actually a set of two algorithms:
- A key generation algorithm.
- A function $F$, that takes as input a point $x$ and a key $k$ and produces either an encrypted result or plaintext, depending on the input and the key.
Key Generation
The key generation algorithm is the most complex part of RSA. The aim of the key generation algorithm is to generate both the public and the private
RSA keys. Sounds simple enough! Unfortunately, weak key generation makes
RSA very vulnerable to attack. So it has to be done correctly. Here is
what has to happen in order to generate secure RSA keys:
- Large Prime Number Generation: Two large prime numbers $p$ and $q$ need to be generated. These numbers are very large: At least 512 digits, but 1024 digits is considered safe.
- Modulus: From the two large numbers, a modulus $n$ is generated by multiplying $p$ and $q$
- Totient: The totient of $n, \phi(n)$ is calculated.
- Public Key: A prime number is calculated from the range $[3,\phi(n))$ that has a greatest common divisor of $1$ with $\phi(n)$.
- Private Key: Because the prime in step 4 has a gcd of 1 with $\phi(n)$, we are able to determine it's inverse with respect to $\bmod \phi(n)$.
Large Prime Number Generation
It
is vital for RSA security that two very large prime numbers be generated
that are quite far apart. Generating composite numbers, or even prime
numbers that are close together makes RSA totally insecure.
How
does one generate large prime numbers? The answer is to pick a large
random number (a very large random number) and test for primeness. If
that number fails the prime test, then add 1 and start over again until
we have a number that passes a prime test. The problem is now: How do we
test a number in order to determine if it is prime?
The answer: An incredibly fast prime number tester called the Rabin-Miller primality tester
is able to accomplish this. Give it a very large number, it is able to
very quickly determine with a high probability if its input is prime.
But there is a catch (and readers may have spotted the catch in the last
sentence): The Rabin-Miller test is a probability test, not a definite
test. Given the fact that RSA absolutely relies upon generating large
prime numbers, why would anyone want to use a probabilistic test? The
answer: With Rabin-Miller, we make the result as accurate as we want. In
other words, Rabin-Miller is setup with parameters that produces a
result that determine if a number is prime with a probability of our
choosing. Normally, the test is performed by iterating $64$ times and
produces a result on a number that has a $\frac{1}{2^{128}}$ chance of
not being prime. The probability of a number passing the Rabin-Miller
test and not being prime is so low, that it is okay to use it with RSA.
In fact, $\frac{1}{2^{128}}$ is such a small number that I would suspect
that nobody would ever get a false positive.
So with Rabin-Miller, we generate two large prime numbers: $p$ and $q$.
Modulus
Once we have our two prime numbers, we can generate a modulus very easily:
\begin{equation}\label{rsa:modulus}n=p\cdot q\end{equation}
RSA's main security foundation relies upon the fact that given two large prime numbers, a composite number (in this case $n$) can very easily be deduced by multiplying the two primes together. But, given just $n$, there is no known algorithm to efficiently determining $n$'s prime factors. In fact, it is considered a hard problem. I am going to bold this next statement for effect: The foundation of RSA's security relies upon the fact that given a composite number, it is considered a hard problem to determine it's prime factors.
The bolded statement above cannot be proved. That is why I used the term "considered a hard problem" and not "is a hard problem". This is a little bit disturbing: Basing the security of one of the most used cryptographic atomics on something that is not provable difficult. The only solace one can take is that throughout history, numerous people have tried, but failed to find a solution to this.
RSA's main security foundation relies upon the fact that given two large prime numbers, a composite number (in this case $n$) can very easily be deduced by multiplying the two primes together. But, given just $n$, there is no known algorithm to efficiently determining $n$'s prime factors. In fact, it is considered a hard problem. I am going to bold this next statement for effect: The foundation of RSA's security relies upon the fact that given a composite number, it is considered a hard problem to determine it's prime factors.
The bolded statement above cannot be proved. That is why I used the term "considered a hard problem" and not "is a hard problem". This is a little bit disturbing: Basing the security of one of the most used cryptographic atomics on something that is not provable difficult. The only solace one can take is that throughout history, numerous people have tried, but failed to find a solution to this.
Totient
With the prime factors of $n$, the totient can be very quickly calculated:
\begin{equation}\label{RSA:totient}\phi(n) = (p-1)\cdot (q-1)\end{equation}
This
is directly from equation $\ref{bg:totient}$ above. It is derived like
so: $\phi(n) = \phi(p\cdot q) = \phi(p) \cdot \phi(q) = (p-1)\cdot
(q-1)$. The reason why the RSA becomes vulnerable if one can determine
the prime factors of the modulus is because then one can easily
determine the totient.
Public Key
Next, the public key
is determined. Normally expressed as $e$, it is a prime number chosen
in the range $[3,\phi(n))$. The discerning reader may think that $3$ is a
little small, and yes, I agree, if $3$ is chosen, it could lead to
security flaws. So in practice, the public key is normally set at
$65537$. Note that because the public key is prime, it has a high change of a gcd equal to $1$ with $\phi(n)$. If this is not the case, then we must use another prime number that is not $65537$, but this will only occur if $65537$ is a multiple of $\phi(n)$, something that is quite unlikely, but must still be checked for.
An
interesting observation: If in practice, the number above is set at
$65537$, then it is not picked at random; surely this is a problem?
Actually, no, it isn't. As the name implies, this key is public, and
therefore is shared with everyone. As long as the private key
cannot be deduced from the public key, we are happy. The reason why the
public key is not randomly chosen in practice is because it is desirable
not to have a large number. This is because it is more efficient to
encrypt with smaller numbers than larger numbers.
The public key is actually a key pair of the exponent $e$ and the modulus $n$ and is present as follows
The public key is actually a key pair of the exponent $e$ and the modulus $n$ and is present as follows
$(e,n)$
Private Key
Because the public key has a gcd
of $1$ with $\phi(n)$, the multiplicative inverse of the public key
with respect to $\phi(n)$ can be efficiently and quickly determined using the Extended Euclidean Algorithm. This
multiplicative inverse is the private key. The common notation
for expressing the private key is $d$. So in effect, we have the
following equation (one of the most important equations in RSA):
\begin{equation}\label{RSA:ed} e\cdot d = 1 \bmod \phi(n) \end{equation}
Just like the public key, the private key is also a key pair of the exponent $d$ and modulus $n$:
Just like the public key, the private key is also a key pair of the exponent $d$ and modulus $n$:
$(d,n)$
One of the absolute fundamental security assumptions behind RSA is that given a public key, one cannot efficiently determine the private key. I intend to write a future blog post explaining why RSA works, so I am not going to explain this now.
Function Evaluation
This is the process of transforming a plaintext message into ciphertext, or vice-versa. The RSA function, for message $m$ and key $k$ is evaluated as follows:
\begin{equation}F(m,k) = m^k \bmod n\end{equation}
There are obviously two cases:- Encrypting with the public key, and then decrypting with the private key.
- Encrypting with the private key, and then decrypting with the public key.
Encryption: $F(m,e) = m^e \bmod n = c$, where $m$ is the message, $e$ is the public key and $c$ is the cipher.
Decryption: $F(c,d) = c^d \bmod n = m$.
And there you have it: RSA!
e - the public key
And there you have it: RSA!
Final Example: RSA From Scratch
This
is the part that everyone has been waiting for: an example of RSA from
the ground up.
Calculation of Modulus And Totient
Lets
choose two primes: $p=11$ and $q=13$. Hence the modulus is $n = p
\times q = 143$. The totient of n $\phi(n) = (p-1)\cdot (q-1) = 120$.
Key Generation
For the public
key, a random prime number that has a greatest common divisor (gcd) of 1
with $\phi(n)$ and is less than $\phi(n)$ is chosen. Let's choose $7$
(note: both $3$ and $5$ do not have a gcd of 1 with $\phi(n)$. So $e=7$,
and to determine $d$, the secret key, we need to find the inverse of
$7$ with $\phi(n)$. This can be done very easily and quickly with the Extended Euclidean Algorithm, and hence $d=103$. This can be easily verified: $e\cdot d = 1 \bmod \phi(n)$ and $7\cdot 103 = 721 = 1 \bmod 120$.
Encryption/Decryption
Lets choose our plaintext message, $m$ to be $9$:
Encryption: $m^e \bmod n = 9^7 \bmod 143 = 48 = c$Decryption: $c^d \bmod n = 48^{103} \bmod 143 = 9 = m$
A Real World Example
Now for a real world example, lets encrypt the message "attack at dawn". The first thing that must be done is to convert the message into a numeric format. Each letter is represented by an ascii character, therefore it can be accomplished quite easily. I am not going to dive into the converting strings to numbers or vice-versa, but just to note that it can be done very easily. How I will do it here is to convert the string to a bit array, and then the bit array to a large number. This can very easily be reversed to get back the original string given the large number. Using this method, "attack at dawn" becomes $1976620216402300889624482718775150$.
Key Generation
Now to pick two large primes, $p$ and $q$. These numbers must be random and not too close to each other. Here are the numbers that I generated:
p
12131072439211271897323671531612440428472427633701410925634549312301964373042085619324197365322416866541017057361365214171711713797974299334871062829803541
q
12027524255478748885956220793734512128733387803682075433653899983955179850988797899869146900809131611153346817050832096022160146366346391812470987105415233
With these two large numbers, we can calculate n and $\phi(n)$
n 145906768007583323230186939349070635292401872375357164399581871019873438799005358938369571402670149802121818086292467422828157022922076746906543401224889672472407926969987100581290103199317858753663710862357656510507883714297115637342788911463535102712032765166518411726859837988672111837205085526346618740053
$\phi(n)$ 145906768007583323230186939349070635292401872375357164399581871019873438799005358938369571402670149802121818086292467422828157022922076746906543401224889648313811232279966317301397777852365301547848273478871297222058587457152891606459269718119268971163555070802643999529549644116811947516513938184296683521280
e - the public key
$65537$ has a gcd of 1 with $\phi(n)$, so lets use it as the public key. To calculate the private key, use extended euclidean algorithm to find the multiplicative inverse with respect to $\phi(n)$.
d - the private key
89489425009274444368228545921773093919669586065884257445497854456487674839629818390934941973262879616797970608917283679875499331574161113854088813275488110588247193077582527278437906504015680623423550067240042466665654232383502922215493623289472138866445818789127946123407807725702626644091036502372545139713
Encryption/Decryption
Encryption: $1976620216402300889624482718775150^e \bmod n$
35052111338673026690212423937053328511880760811579981620642802346685810623109850235943049080973386241113784040794704193978215378499765413083646438784740952306932534945195080183861574225226218879827232453912820596886440377536082465681750074417459151485407445862511023472235560823053497791518928820272257787786
Decryption:
35052111338673026690212423937053328511880760811579981620642802346685810623109850235943049080973386241113784040794704193978215378499765413083646438784740952306932534945195080183861574225226218879827232453912820596886440377536082465681750074417459151485407445862511023472235560823053497791518928820272257787786$^d \bmod n$
1976620216402300889624482718775150 (which is our plaintext "attack at dawn")
This real world example shows how large the numbers are that is used in the real world.Conclusion
RSA is the single most useful tool for building cryptographic protocols (in my humble opinion). In this post, I have shown how RSA works, I will follow this up with another post explaining why it works.